1.  STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM   

(a) Gross features of the atom (1) Short account of Dalton’s atomic theory    and J. J. Thompson’s experiment should    be given.    (2) Outline description of Rutherford’s alpha    particle scattering experiment to establish    the structure of the atom.  Treatment    should illustrate scientific method and    development of a model.   (b) (i) Atomic number/proton (1) Definitions and representation in symbols   number; of atoms and sub-atomic particles.    number of neutrons, isotopes;    atomic mass. (2) Atomic mass as the weighted average    mass of isotopes. Calculation of relative    mass of chlorine should be used as an    example.  
(ii) Relative Atomic mass (Ar) and relative molecular mass (Mr) based on Carbon-12 scale. 
  Definition of particles and treatment of particles   (iii) Atoms, molecules and ions as building blocks of matter.   (c) Nuclear Chemistry (1) Distinction between ordinary reactions      (i) Types and nature of radiations and nuclear reactions.    (2) Charges, relative mass  and penetrating    power of radiations.    (3) Balancing of simple nuclear equations.    Qualitative treatment (only) of half life.  
(ii) Half life as a measure of the stability of the nucleus   (1) Natural and artificial radioactivity.   (iii) Nuclear reactions: Detection of radiation by Geiger-    Fission and Fusion in nuclear Muller counter.    reactors. (2) Generation of electricity; atomic bombs.
(iv) Effects and application of (1) Carbon dating (qualitative treatment only). radioactivity. 
Use of radioactivity in agriculture, medicine and industry. 
 (d)  Electronic Energy levels Experimental evidence and interpretation of line    spectra (qualitative treatment only).  
(i) Arrangement of electrons in Mention should be made of the arrangements of   the  main  and  sub-energy electrons in the main shells (K, L, M) as 2:8:18.    levels.   (ii) Orbitals Origin of s, p, d  and f  orbitals as  sub-energy    levels; shapes of s and p orbitals only.   (iii) Rules  and  principles  for (1) Aufbau Principle, Hund’s Rule of    filling in electrons Maximum Multiplicity and Pauli    Exclusion Principle.    (2) Abbreviated and detailed electronic    configuration in terms of s, p, and d    orbitals from hydrogen to zinc.  
PERIODIC CHEMISTRY 
 (a)  Periodicity of the elements: (1) Electronic configurations leading to group    and periodic classifications.   (i) Periodic Law; (2) Periodic  properties  for  the  first  18    elements: atomic size, ionic size, ionization    energy, electron affinity, electronegativity.    Simple discrepancies should be accounted    for.   (ii) Trends in periodic properties: (3) Progression from:    Down a group and across a (i) metallic to non-metallic character    period. of elements;    (ii) ionic  to covalent  bonding  in    compounds.  
(b) (i) Periodic  gradation of  Recognition of  group  variations noting any  elements anomalies.  Treatment  should  include  the   in group i.e. the halogens: following:   F2/Cl2/Br2/I2. (i) physical states, melting and boiling    points;   (ii) redox  properties of the  elements:    displacement reaction of one    halogen by another.    (ii)  Properties of chlorine as a Properties should include:    typical halogen    (i) variable oxidation states;    (ii) reaction with water and alkali    (balanced equations required).   (c) Elements of the first transition series. (1) Their electronic configuration, physical    properties and chemical reactivities of the    elements and their compounds.    (2)  Physical properties should include:    physical states, metallic properties and    magnetic properties.    (3)  Other properties of the transition metals    should include:    (i) Variable oxidation states;    (ii) Formation of coloured compounds;    (iii) Complex ion formation;    (iv) Catalytic abilities   3.  BONDING   (a) Inter-atomic bonding Lewis dot structure for ionic and covalent    compounds.    (i)  Ionic bonding    (I) Factors influencing its Formation of stable compounds  from ions.    formation Factors should  include: ionisation energy;    electron affinity; electronegativity difference.    (II)  Properties of ionic Typical properties of ionic compounds using    compounds. binary compounds which are largely ionic. e.g.    melting points, boiling point  and solubility in    various solvents.     

(ii)  Covalent bonding Co-ordinate bond as a type of covalent bond.   (I) Factors influencing Factors  should  include:  ionization  energy;    covalent bond formation; electron affinity and electronegativity difference   (II) Properties  of  covalent Typical properties compared with those of ionic    compounds. compounds  e.g. Melting point, boiling point,    solubility in various solvents like water, hexane,    ether.   (b) Simple molecules and their shapes Models should be used where applicable:    (i) Linear: CO2    (ii) Non linear: H2O    (iii) Tetrahedral: CH4    (iv) Pyramidal: NH3  (c) Metallic Bonding
  (i) Factors influencing its formation. (1)   Factors should include: atomic radius,    ionization potential, and number of    valence electrons.    Type of specific packing not required.    (ii) Properties of metals (2)   Typical properties including conductivity;    malleability, ductility demonstrated using    metals like Mg, Zn, Sn, Fe.   (d) Intermolecular bonding (1)   Relative physical properties of polar and    non-polar compounds. Description of    (i)  van der Waal’s forces; formation and nature should be treated.    Dipole-dipole and induced dipole forces    (ii) Hydrogen bonding. should be treated under van der Waal’s    forces.    (2)   Variation of the melting points and    boiling points of noble gases, halogens    and alkanes in a homologous series    explained in term of van der Waal’s    forces; and variation in the boiling points   (e) Comparison of all bond types. of H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te explained using     hydrogen bonding.  

STOICHIOMETRY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 
 (a)  Symbols, Formulae and Equations. Calculations involving formulae and equations    will be required. Mass and volume relationships   (i) Chemical symbols in chemical reactions and the stoichiometry of    such reactions as:   (ii) Empirical and molecular (i) precipitation;    formulae (ii) evolution of gases;    (iii) displacement of metal ions;   (iii) Chemical equations (iv) analysis of chlorides;    (v) formation and reduction of metallic    oxides   (iv)  Laws of Chemical combination Experimental illustrations of:    (1) Law of conservation of mass.    (2) Law of constant composition.    (3) Law of multiple proportion.   (b) (i) Amount of substance. (1) Mass and volume measurements;    (2) The mole as a unit of measurement;    Avogadro’s Constant, (L=the number of    atoms in 12.00g of 12C).    (3) Molar quantities and their uses.    (4) Mole of electrons;  atoms, molecules,    formula units etc.    (ii) Mole ratios Use of mole ratios in determining stoichiometry    of chemical reactions.  Simple calculations to    determine  number  of  entities,  amount  of    substance, mass, concentration, volume and    other quantities.   (c) Solutions (1) Concept of solution as made up of solvent    and solute.   (i) Concentration terms (2) Mass (g) or mole (mol) per unit volume.    Emphasis on current IUPAC chemical    terminology, symbols and conventions.   (ii) Standard solutions (3) Preparation of some primary standard    solutions using anhydrous Na2CO3,    (COOH)2, 2H2O.    (4) Dilution factor.  
5. STATES OF MATTER
(a)Kinetic model of matter
(i) Postulates of the kinetic model of matter. 
(ii) The use of the kinetic model to explain 
(I) the nature of solids, liquids and gases; 
 (II)  the changes of state (1)  Changes of state of matter should be   of matter.     explained in terms of movement of       particles.  It should be emphasized that    randomness decreases (and orderliness    increases) from gaseous state to liquid    state and to solid state.    (2)  Illustrations of changes of state using the    different forms of water, iodine, sulphur,    napthalene etc.    (3)  Brownian motion to be illustrated using    any of the following experiments:    (i) Pollen grains/powdered sulphur    in  water  (viewed  under  a    microscope).    (ii) Smoke in a glass container    illuminated by a strong light from    the side.    (iii) A dusty room being swept and    viewed from outside under    sunlight. (III)  Diffusion Demonstration could be given using the following:    (i) Diffusion  of  bromine/iodine/NO2    from a sealed tube into an empty    tube.    (ii)  Spread of scent of ammonia in a room.  (b) The Gases 
(i) The Gas Laws 
Charles’; Boyle’s; Dalton’s; Graham’s; Avogadro’s laws and the ideal gas equation; 
Qualitative explanation of each of the gas laws using the kinetic model. 
Mathematical relations of the gas laws  and 
calculations based on the laws will be required. Molar volume of a gas =22.4dm3 at s.t.p. 
(2) Derivation of the general gas law. 
PV = K.T(ii) Preparation and properties 
of gases (1) Laboratory preparation of gases lighter than air (H2, NH3) and gases 
heavier than air (CO2, HCI and SO2) to illustrate the principles of purification and collection of gases.
Chemical properties of the gases mentioned above (i.e. H2, NH3, CO2, HCl and SO2). (c) Liquids 
Liquids as an intermediate state between gases and solids in the kinetic-molecular sense should be emphasized. Concept of vapour pressure
Simple methods for determination of boiling points. 
(3) Standard boiling point. (d) Solids 
(i) Types and structures. 
Ionic, metallic, covalent and molecular solids. Comparison of their properties. (2) Regular arrangements of ions, molecules and    atoms in three dimensions in the solid state    should be emphasized. Knowledge of    specific packing arrangements not required.    (3) Melting points as indicator of purity of solids.   (ii) Structures, properties and  Properties and uses – dependent on structures.    usesof diamond and    graphite.  

ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES 
 (a) Energy changes in physical and Enthalpy, energy diagrams. Forms of energy, energy    chemical processes content, transfer of energy.   (b) Description, definition and (1) Exothermic and endothermic processes.    illustrations of energy changes    and effects. (2) Total energy of  a system as the sum  of    various forms of energy e.g. kinetic, potential,    electrical, heat, sound etc. Enthalpy changes    of the following:  Formation, combustion,    Solution, neutralization.    (3) Practical knowledge of the measurement of    the heats of neutralisation and solution.    (4) Uses of energy changes including energy    content of foods and fuels.   7.  ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS (1) Arrhenius concept of acids and bases.   (a)  Definitions of acids and bases.    (2) Effects of  acids and bases on indicators,    metals and trioxocarbonate (IV) salts.   (b)  Physical and chemical properties (1) Conductivities, taste etc.     (2) Concept of amphoterism.    of acids and bases.    (3)   Balanced chemical equations of all reactions.  (c) Acids, bases and salts as electrolytes Electrolytes and non-electrolytes; strong and weak    electrolytes. Evidence from  conductivity and    enthalpy of neutralisation.   (d) pH (1) Knowledge of pH scale    (2) pH as a measure of acidity and alkalinity.   (e)  Weak acids and weak bases (1) Behaviour of acids and bases in water as    example of equilibrium system    (2) Qualitative comparison of the conductances of    molar solutions of strong and weak acids and    bases.   (f) Hydrolysis (1) Qualitative explanation of hydrolysis.    (2) Behavior of some salts (e.g. NH4C1, A1C13,    Na2CO3, CH3COONa) in water as examples    of equilibrium systems.   (g) Acid –base indicators (1) Indicators as weak organic acids or bases    (organic dyes).    (2) Colour of indicator at any pH dependent on    relative amounts of acid and base forms.    (3) Working pH ranges of  methyl orange and    phenolphthalein.   (h) Acid-base titrations (1) Correct use of relevant apparatus.    (2) Knowledge of how acid-base indicators work    in titrations.    (3) Titration involving weak acids versus strong    bases, strong acids versus weak bases and    strong acids versus strong bases using the    appropriate indicators and their applications    in quantitative determination; e.g.    concentrations, purity, water of crystallisation    and composition.  
(2) Factors influencing collisions: temperature and concentration.(3)Effective collision.(4)Activation energy.(5)Energy profile showing activation energy and126  WASSCE / WAEC CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS       CONTENT NOTES   8.  SOLUBILITY OF   SUBSTANCES (1) Saturated and unsaturated solutions.      (a) General principles (2) Saturated solution as an equilibrium system.       (3) Solubility expressed in mol dm-3    (4) Solubility curves and their uses.    (5) Relationship between solubility and    crystallisation.    (6) Crystallisation as a method of purification.    (7) Solubility  of sparingly  soluble  salts.    Complete dissociation of the portion that    dissolves (Qualitative treatment only).   (b) Practical application of solubilityGeneralisations of solubility of salts and their    applications in qualitative analyses.  

RATES OF REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS 
 (a)  Rate of reaction Definition of reaction rates       (i)  Factors affecting rates: (1) For gaseous systems, pressure may be used as   physical states, concentration concentration term.       of reactants, temperature, (2)   Appropriate  experimental demonstration for   catalysts and medium.     each factor is required.      (ii) Theory of reaction rates. (1) Collision theory and activation energy theory     to be treated qualitatively only.  enthalpy change.(b) Equilibrium
 (i) General principles Reversible reactions i.e. dynamic equilibrium. The    equilibrium constant K must be treated qualitatively.    It must be stressed that K for a system is constant at    constant temperature.   (ii) Le Chatelier’s principle Prediction of the effects of external influence  of    concentration, temperature and pressure changes on    equilibrium systems.  
REDOX REACTIONS 
 (a) Oxidation and reduction processes (1) Oxidation and reduction in terms of    (i) addition and removal of oxygen and    hydrogen;    (ii) loss and gain of electrons;    (iii) change in oxidation numbers/states.    (2) Oxidation numbers/states.   (b)  Oxidising and reducing agents (1) Definition of oxidising and reducing agents in    terms of:    (i) addition and removal of oxygen and    hydrogen;    (ii) loss and gain of electrons;    (iii) change in oxidation numbers/state.    (2) Tests for oxidants and reductants.   (c) Redox equations Balancing redox equations by:    (i) ion, electron or  change  in oxidation    number/state method;    (ii) half reactions and overall reactions    IUPAC system required. (d) Electrochemical Cells    (i) (I) Standard (1) Standard hydrogen electrode:    Electrode Potential Meaning of standard electrode potential and its    measurement.    (II) Drawing and writing (2) Only metal/metal ion systems should be used.    of cell diagrams.    (ii) E.M.F. of Cells (1) Electrochemical cells as a combination of two    half-cells.    (2) The meaning of the magnitude and sign of the    emf.    (iii) Application of (1) Distinction between primary and secondary    Electrochemical cells cells.    (2) Daniel cell, lead battery cell, dry cells, fuel    cells and their use as generators of electrical    energy from chemical reactions.   (e) Electrolysis Mechanism of electrolysis:    Compare with electrochemical cells    (i) Principles of electrolysis    (ii) Factors influencing discharge (1) Limit  electrolytes to molten PbBr2/NaC1,    of species dilute NaC1 solution, concentrated  NaC1    solution, CuSO4(aq); dilute H2SO4  (using    platinum or graphite and copper electrodes).    (2) Faraday’s Laws: Simple calculations based    on the relation F = Le = 96,500 C and mole    ratios to determine mass, volume of gases,    number of entities, charges etc. using half    reactions and overall reactions.    (iii) Practical Applications Electroplating, smelting of aluminium etc.   (f) Corrosion of metals (1) Corrosion treated as redox process    (2) Rusting of iron and its economic cost.    (3) Prevention based on relative magnitude of    electrode potentials and preventive methods    like galvanising,   sacrificialcathodic    protection and non-redox methods.

CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS 
 (a) Classification and nomenclature (1) Broad classification into straight chain,    branched chain, aromatic and alicyclic   (i) Root names compounds.   (ii) Functional groups    (2) Systematic nomenclature of the following    compounds: Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes,    alkanols, alkanoic acids, alkanoates    (esters and salts) and amines.   (b) Separation and purification Methods to be discussed should include:    distillation, crystallisation, drying,    chromatography.  
(c) Determination of empirical and molecular formulae and molecular structures of organic compounds. 
(d) General Properties 
 (i) Homologous series (1) Gradation in physical properties.    (2) Effects  on  the  physical  properties  by    introduction of active groups into the inert    alkane.   (ii) Isomerism (1) Examples should be limited to compounds    having maximum of five carbon atoms.    (2) Differences between structural and    geometric/stereo isomerism.   (e)  Alkanes:   (i) Sources and properties (1) Laboratory and industrial preparations and    other sources.    (2) Nomenclature and structure    (3) Reactivity:    (i) combustion;    (ii) substitution reactions;    (iii) cracking of large alkane molecules.   

 (ii) Uses Importance  as fuels, as starting materials for    synthesis. Uses of haloalkanes and pollution effects.   (iii) Petroleum (1) Composition.    (2) Fractional distillation and major products;    (3) Cracking and reforming;    (4) Petro-chemicals: Starting materials of organic    synthesis;    (5) Quality of petrol. Meaning of octane number.   (f) Alkenes:    (i) Sources and properties (1) Laboratory preparation;    (2) Nomenclature and structure;    (3) Addition reactions with halogens, bromine    water, hydrogen halides;    (4) Oxidation: Hydroxylation with   aqueous    KMnO4.    (ii) Laboratory detection Use of reaction with Br2/CC14  and KMnO4(aq)  as    means of characterising alkenes.   (g) Alkynes: (1) Nomenclature and structure:    Sources and Uses    (2) Industrial production of ethyne;    (3) Uses of ethyne.   (h) Benzene   (i) Structure and physical properties (1) Resonance in benzene. Stability leading to    substitution reactions.    Halogenations (mechanism not required)   (ii) Chemical properties (2) Addition reactions: hydrogenation and    halogenation;    (3) Compare reactions with those of alkenes.  

   (i)Alkanols (1)   Laboratory preparation including hydration of    alkenes.  (i) Sources, nomenclature   and structure (2) Industrial and local production of ethanol    including alcoholic beverages. Harmful    impurities and methods of purification should    be mentioned.   (ii) Classification Primary, secondary and tertiary alkanols.   (iii) Physical properties Including those due to  intermolecular hydrogen    bonding.   (iv) Chemical Properties (1) Reaction with:    (i) Na,    (ii) alkanoic acids (esterification);    (iii) conc. H2SO4  
Oxidation by: 
(i) KMnO4(aq); 
(ii) K2Cr2O7 (aq); (iii) I2/NaOH(aq). 
(v) Laboratory test 
(j) Alkanoic Acids 
(i) Sources, nomenclature and structure 
 (ii) Physical properties Including those due to  intermolecular hydrogen    bonding.   (iii) Chemical properties Acid properties only: i.e. reactions with H2O,    NaOH, NaHCO3.   (iv) Laboratory test Reaction with NaHCO3.   (v) Uses and properties Uses and properties of ethanoic and    phenylmethanoic (benzoic) acids as  examples of    aliphatic and aromatic acids respectively.  (k) Alkanoates as derivatives of alkanoic Preparation  of  alkyl  alkanoates  (esters)  from   acids alkanoic acids.  
(i) Sources, nomenclature and structure 
(ii) Physical properties 
 (iii) Chemical properties Hydrolysis of esters (mechanism not required).   (l) Fats and oils : Alkanoates (esters)    Sources, physical  and  chemical (1) Saponification, hardening of oils.    properties.    (2) Detergents as soapless detergents.    Comparison of soapless detergents with soapy deter-    gents and their action on soft water and hard water.   (m) Amino acids Difunctional nature of amino acids.   (n)  Natural and synthetic polymers    (i) Definitions (1) Polymerisation;    (2) Addition and condensation polymers;    (3) Plastics and resins;    (4) Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers.    (ii) Important properties of    polymers    (iii) Natural polymers    (I) Carbohydrates: (1) Classification as monosaccharides,    formulae, properties disaccharides and polysaccharides; reducing    and uses. and non reducing sugars using glucose,    fructose, sucrose/maltose and starch/cellulose    as examples.    (2) Hydrolysis of sucrose and starch  
(II) Proteins (1) As polymers of amino acid molecules linked    by peptide or amide linkage.    (2) Hydrolysis    (3) Uses in living systems.   (iv)  Synthetic polymers Classification  and  preparation  based  on  the    monomers and co-polymers  

CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 
 (a)   Chemistry in industry (1) Natural resources in candidate’s own country    (2) Chemical industries in candidate’s own country    and  their  corresponding  raw  materials.    Distinction between fine and heavy chemicals.    (3) Factors that determine  siting of chemical    industries.    (4) Effect of industries on the community.   (b)  (i) Extraction of metals: (1) Raw materials, processing, main products, by-    products, recycling.   (I) Al and Fe; (2) Uses of the metals.  (II) Au or Sn. 
 (ii) Alloys Common alloys of Cu, A1, Pb, and Fe and their    uses.  (c) Pollution 
 Air, water and soil pollution. (1) Sources, effects and control,    (2) Greenhouse effect and depletion of the ozone    layer,    (3) Biodegradable and non-biodegradable    pollutants.   (d)  Biotechnology Food processing, fermentation including production    of kenkey/gari, bread and alcoholic beverages e.g.    Local gin.  

PRACTICALS 
(a) GENERAL SKILLS AND PRINCIPLES 
Candidates will be expected to be familiar with the following skills and principles:
(i) Measurement of mass and volume; 
(ii) Preparation and dilution of standard solutions; 
(iii) Filtration, recrystallisation and melting point determination; 
(iv) Measurement of heats of neutralisation and solution; 
(v) Determination of pH value of various solutions by colorimetry; 
(vi) Determination of rates of reaction from concentration versus time curves; 
(b) QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 
Acid-base titrations
The use of standard solutions of acids and alkalis and the indicators methyl orange and phenolphthalein to determine the following:
(i) The concentrations of acid and alkaline solutions; 
(ii) The molar masses of acids and bases and water of crystallization; 
(iii) The solubility of acids and bases; 
(iv) The percentage purity of acids and bases. 
(c) QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: No formal scheme of analysis is required. 
(i) (a) Characteristic tests of the following cations with dilute NaOH(aq) and NH3(aq);
NH4+; Ca2+; Pb 2+; Cu2+, Fe2+; Fe3+; A13+; and Zn2+
(b) Confirmatory tests for the above cations. 
(ii) (a) Characteristic reaction of dilute HC1 on solids or aqueous solutions and conc. H2SO4 on solid samples of the following: C1-; SO32-; CO32-; NO3-; SO42-;
(b) Confirmatory tests for the above anions 
(iii) Comparative study of the halogens; displacement reactions. 
(iv) Characteristic test for the following gases: H2; NH3; CO2; HC1 and SO2 
(v) Characteristic test tube reactions of the functional groups in the following simple organic compounds: Alkenes; alkanols; alkanoic acids, sugars (using Fehling’s and Benedict’s solutions only); starch (iodine test only) and proteins (using the  Ninhydrin test, Xanthoproteic test, Biuret test and Millon’s test only).

SECTION ‘B’(FOR CANDIDATES IN GHANA)
  CONTENT NOTES   1.  STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM   Elementary treatment of mass Qualitative knowledge  of the principles and   spectrometry.     operations of the mass  spectrometer, spectra       and their use in determining isotopes, relative    atomic and molecular masses only.   2.  PERIODIC CHEMISTRY   (a)  Periodicity of the elements Periodic properties should include atomisation       energy.   (b) Periodic gradation of the elements in (1)  Differences and similarities between the    the second period and of Na, Mg, A1    properties of elements in the second and    and Si in the third period.    third periods should be stated.       (2)  Tendency of  compounds  to decompose    on heating to give compounds of more    stable structures.   (c) Periodic  gradation  of elements in (1)  Inter-atomic bond energies;    group VII (i.e halogens)        
(2) Variable oxidation states for F2, Br2 & I2;   (3) Reaction of F2, Br2 and I2 with water and    alkali (balanced equations required);   (4) Comparison of PKa values    (acid strengths) of the hydrogen halides.  
(d) Elements of the first transition series Chemical reactivity of the metals with air, water, acids and comparison with s-block elements.
BONDING 
(a) Ionic bonding 
 (i)  Factors influencing its formation Factors  should  include  lattice  energy.       Influence of ionic charge and ionic size (charge    density) on lattice energy and on properties of    ionic compounds.   (ii) Covalent bonding: (1)   Concept of polarizing power and    polarization polarizability of ions.    (2)   Polarization effects should be explained    in terms of ionic radius and charge and    that it introduces covalent character.    Examples of binary compounds only    (e.g. A1C13, BeC12) should be used.   (b)   Hybridization (1)  Hybridization as mixing of orbitals:    sp3, sp2 and sp hybrid orbitals.   (i) Covalent bonding (2)  Overlap of orbitals-sigma bonds as head-    on overlap and pi bonds as sideways    overlap.   (ii) Shapes of molecules. Simple treatment of shapes of molecules    using  electron  repulsion  in  hybrid    orbitals  leading  to  structure  and    displayed formulae. Treatment should be    limited to the following molecules only:    BC13, C2H2, BeC12, and C2H4.   (c) Inter molecular bonding Discussion of factors influencing strength of    (i)  van der Waal’s forces inter atomic forces should be related to the    density of element(s) and compound(s)    (ii)  Hydrogen bonding Variation in the boiling points should include    compounds such as H2Se, H2Te.   4.  SOLUTIONS Preparationofdilutesolutionsfrom    concentrated solutions of known density and    percentage composition (w/v, w/w).   5.  STATES OF MATTER   (a) Gases Derivation of PV= nRT required.       (b) Structures, properties and uses of Structures  dependent  on  hybridisation  of     carbon.    diamond and graphite     

ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES 
 (a)  Energy changes in physical and (1) Definition and understanding of the    chemical processes    meaning of the energy terms:       surroundings, open and closed systems.    (2) Energy cycles.   (b) Description, definition and (1) Definition of enthalpies of hydration,    illustrations of energy changes and atomisation, sublimation and lattice    effects. energy will be required.    (2) Description  of  indirect  methods  of    measurement of energy changes.   Hess’ law (1) Use of different cycles to illustrate Hess’    Law.    (2) Simple  calculations  using  chemical    equations, energy cycles or  diagrams    with given energy changes.   (d) Bond Energy (1) Bond energy as an average value.    (2) Bond energy in covalent molecules and    its use in assessment of bond strength,    energy content and enthalpy of reaction.  
 7.  ACIDS; BASES AND SALTS   (a)  Definitions of acids and bases (1)Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis concept of    acids and bases.    (2)Conjugate acid-base  pair concept in    terms of equilibrium.   (b) pH and pOH (1)pOH as a measure of alkalinity (and    acidity).    (2)Calculation of [H+], [OH-] and the    corresponding pH and pOH of given    solutions.   (c)  Weak acids and weak bases (1) Ka, pKa  and Kb, pKb  as measurements    ofacidandbasicstrengths    respectively.    Calculations involving Ka, pKa and Kb,    pKb.   (d) Buffer solutions Qualitative definition.    Examples of buffers from the laboratory and in    living systems.   (e) Acid/base titrations Use of titrimetric means to  determine the       composition of a mixture of CO32-  and HCO3-    by double indicator method.   8.  SOLUBILITY OF   SUBSTANCES   Dissolution of ionic and covalent Expression of solubility in g dm  -3   compounds.    Dissolution in terms of the destruction of    forces holding units together e.g., balance    between lattice energy and solvation energy in    ionic compounds and van der Waal’s forces in    covalent compounds.  
RATES OF REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS 
 (a)  Order of reaction. (1)  Deduction of order and hence rate from    experimental data.    (2) Simple  relation  between  rates  and    concentration of first order and second    order reactions.    (3) General rate law equation.   (b) Equilibrium law of mass action. (1) Mathematical expression of K.    (2) Relationship  between  Kp    and  Kc;    calculation of Kp and Kc from given set of    data.  
REDOX REACTIONS 
 Redox titrations (1)  Use in solving analytical problems.    (2)Exercises  should  be  limited  to  the    following systems:    (i)   Acidic KMnO4 versus Fe 2+ (aq);    2-    (ii) Acidic KMnO4 versus C2O4 (aq); (iii)    I2/KI(aq) versus S2O32- (aq).  
CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS 
 (a) Classification and nomenclature. (1) Broad classification to include heterocyclic    compounds.    (2) Nomenclature should include amides,    anhydrides and alkanoyl halides.   (b) Separation and purification Other methods should include solvent    extraction and melting point determination.   (c)  Determination  of  empirical  and Outline of steps in the following:    molecular formulae (i) Detection of N, S and the halogens    (ii) Estimation of C, H and O.   (d) Reactivity of organic compounds (1) Inductive effect and mesomeric effect.    (2) Resonance should be illustrated with the    ethanoate and nitro groups too.    (3) Nucleophiles, electrophiles, free radicals    and ions. (e) Alkanes Halogenation – free radical mechanism   (f)  Alkenes: Sources and properties. (1) Industrial manufacture    (2) Mechanism  of reaction illustrated with    hydrogen halides e.g. HBr.   (g) Alkynes: Sources and uses: Relative molar enthalpies of combustion of    ethene and ethyne.   (h)  Benzene: Structure and properties Uses of hexachlorocyclohexane and benzene    hexachloride.  
(i) Alkanols 
  (i) Sources, nomenclature and Preparation by the hydrolysis of haloalkanes.    structure    (ii) Chemical properties Reaction with (NH4)2 [Ce(NO3)6]/HNO3(aq)    (iii) Laboratory test Reaction with  (NH4)2[Ce(NO3)6]/HNO3(aq)    I2/NaOH(aq) for CH3CH(OH) – R group.   (j) Alkanoic acid derivatives Study  of  amides  included.  i.e.  Sources,    preparation, physical  properties,  chemical    properties (e.g. hydrolysis and laboratory tests    for amides (using warm NaOH).   (k) Carbohydrates Structure of glucose, sucrose and starch.   (l) Proteins Formation.  
  12. CHEMISTRY, INDUSTRY AND   THE ENVIRONMENT   (a) Conservation Resource management   (b) Biotechnology (1) Waste recycling e.g. production of    fertilizer and of methane as a source of    fuel.    (2) Production of drugs using micro-    organisms   

13.  PRACTICALS   (a) General skills and principles Determination of equilibrium constants for    simple systems.   (b) Acid-base titrations Analysis of Na2CO3/NaHCO3 mixture by    double indicator method.    Stoichiometry of reactions.   (c) Redox titrations Titrations of the following  systems to solve    analytical problems:    (1) Acidic MnO4- versus Fe2+    (2) Acidic MnO4  versus C2O4    (3) I2/KI versus S2O32-   (d) Qualitative Analysis (1) Characteristic tests for cations using       H2S(g)    (2) Confirmatory test for Na    (3) Tests for Br- and I-    (4) Characteristic test tube reactions of    amides.     
SECTION C(FOR CANDIDATES IN NIGERIA, SIERRA-LEONE AND THE GAMBIA)
  CONTENT NOTES   1. BONDING    Shapes of molecules The shapes of the following molecules should    also be treated:    H2 and O2   2. STATES OF MATTER    The Gas Laws Statement  of  Gay  Lussac’s  Law  and    calculations based on the law.  
3. ENERGY AND ENERGY CHANGES   Enthalpies of reaction Measurement of the ent