PREAMBLE
The Senior High School Forestry syllabus has been structured to assess candidates’ knowledge of forestry and forest conservation. It will also assess candidates’ knowledge and skills in forestry practices that will form the basis for sound tertiary education in forestry and also make them employable in the forestry industry and related disciplines.
AIMS OF THE SYLLABUS
The syllabus will seek, among others, to assess candidates:
Appreciation of the importance of forests to life,
(2) Knowledge and skills in current forestry practices,
(3) Understanding of the effects of population growth on forests,
(4) Understanding of the causes and effects of forest degradation,
(5) Understanding of the regulations governing the use of the forests and forest resources,
(6) Knowledge of the functions of forestry sector institutions,
(7) Basic skills in establishing and managing forest plantations,
(8) Ability to contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of forests.
REQUIREMENTS
Schools offering Forestry are expected to keep demonstration plots where a variety of both indigenous and exotic forest trees are grown and maintained to develop their skills in the management of forest stands.
(2) It is recommended that candidates visit forest reserves, national parks, zoos and forest plantations, forestry institutions and industries for experiential learning.
(3) It is recommended that candidates keep practical notebooks and specimen albums.These should contain records of activities based on laboratory, nursery and field observations to develop their documentation skills.
EXAMINATION SCHEME
There will be three papers: Papers 1, 2 and 3.Papers 1 and 2 will be combined in a 3-hour composite paper.
PAPER 1: Will be an objective test consisting of 50 multiple-choice questions, all of which should be answered within 1 hour for 50 marks
PAPER 2: Will consist of six essay type questions. Candidates will be required to answer four questions within 2 hours for 80 marks.
PAPER 3: Will be a practical paper for school candidates or an alternative to the practical paper for private candidates.
It will consist of four questions all of which should be answered within 2-hours for 60 marks.
SCOPE OF CONTENTS
Questions will be set on the topics listed in the column headed ‘content’. The notes therein are intended to indicate the scope of the questions but are not to be considered as an exhaustive list of limitations and illustrations.
INTRODUCTION TO FORESTRY 1. Basic concepts of Candidates will be examined on the meaning of Forest and Forestry. forest and forestry. Knowledge of the differences between Forestry and Agriculture in terms of land occupancy, time frame; risk etc. and the business aspects of forestry will be assessed. The functions of the forest; types of plants in the forest (trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, special plants); the local and botanical names of timber trees will also be assessed. Candidates’ ability to describe plant habitats i.e. water -logged (aquatic), dry land, valley/slope, hill tops (terrestrial) and on plants (arboreal) and to name the types of plants found in the various habitats will be assessed. Types of animals found in the forest; (birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, snails) and characteristics of the habitats of the animals are required. 2. Introduction to Forest Knowledge of the characteristics of the Forest Ecology. environment; its physical components; and the (a) Concept of forest meaning of forest ecology is required. Ecology. The meaning of ecosystem and examples/types of (b) Forest Ecosystem ecosystem in various habitats (aquatic, terrestrial, arboreal); the major components of the ecosystem and their functions are required. Understanding of food chains and food webs and the types of producer – consumer relationships including symbiotic associations eg. rhizobium in the various habitats in the forest environment will be assessed. Differences between saprophytes and epiphytes are also required. (c) Ecosystem Knowlege of ecosystem functions (Regulation, functions supporting, cultural) will be assessed. Effects of good and degraded ecosystems on health is also required. 3. Ecological Zones The characteristics of the major vegetation zones and (a) Vegetation Zones vegetation types in West Africa will be assessed. Comparisons of the various zones in terms of differences in plant species will be required. The typical plants and animals and their characteristics and the various plant and animal associations in the zones will be assessed. The vegetation types are Wet-evergreen, Moist- evergreen, Moist semi-deciduous, Dry semi- deciduous, Mangroves and Savannah. (b) Factors Affecting Factors affecting the distribution of vegetation Distribution of namely; Climatic (rainfall and temperature), Edaphic Vegetation. (soil factors) and Biotic factors will be assessed. (c) Forest Types (i) Comparison of The Distribution, Composition and Structure of Forest Types. Tropical High Forest (Tropical rain forest, tropical moist semi-deciduous forest), Savannah, Coastal Scrub and Grassland is required. Characteristics of virgin or primeval, secondary, natural and artificial forests are also required. Land use practices in the different vegetation zones will be assessed. (ii) Land use Practices. (d) Major Forest Types The characteristics of the following major forest in Relation to types in relation to latitude i.e. Tropical, Temperate Latitudes. Coniferous and Arctic forest types is required. Understanding of the relationship between temperature and latitude in the determination of the forest types, and the knowledge of the characteristics and distribution of angiosperms and gymnosperms are required.
Introduction to Wildlife
(a) Concept of Understanding of the term wildlife and knowledge of Wildlife wildlife resources in Ghana will be assessed. (a) Identification of Knowledge of the common and scientific names of Wildlife species wildlife species is required. (c) Importance of The importance of wildlife to the Socio-economy; Wildlife Environment, Forestry, Tourism and Scientific research will be assessed. (d) Endangered, Rare Examples of the wildlife species that are Endangered and Common (e.g. Elephants), Rare (e.g. Porcupine) and Common Wildlife Species (e.g. grasscutter); and the reasons why the wildlife species are in those states will be assessed. (e) Wildlife Reserves Types and examples of wildlife reserves in Ghana will be assessed. The types of wildlife reserves are as follows: (i) National Parks e.g. Mole, Kakum, Bui. (ii) Game Production Reserves e.g. Shai Hills (iii) Wildlife Sanctuaries e.g. Buabeng- Fiema, Owabi (iv) Strict Nature Reserves e.g. Digya
The features and location of the various wildlife reserves is also required.
(f) Wildlife Management
Practices Management practices associated with the various wildlife reserves and zoos; and protection of game reserves against poachers will be examined.
Plant parts and Tree Identification
(a) Plant Parts and Functions The morphological and anatomical features of plants and their functions will be assessed. Anatomy of the leaf, stem and roots; covering tissues such as xylem, phloem, cambium, epidermis, cortex and pith is required. (b) Identification of Trees Ability to identify trees using the observable features of tree parts such as leaves, bark, buttress and stem is required. Knowledge of local/trade names and scientific names and application of rubrics of scientific SECTION B nomenclature are required.
FOREST ESTATES 1.Concept of Forest Estates The processes for Reservation and Constitution of a forest estate; the role of a Reserve Settlement Commissioner; Internal and External Pillaring and Admitted Rights. Differences between Protected forest and Non- protected forest is required.
2. Management of Forest
Estates Systems of Management and Development of Public and Private Estates will be examined. Forest estate management problems such as Bushfires, Illegal farming, Illegal felling, Chain-sawing and Illegal mining and their solutions will be assessed. Understanding of bushfires as(i) management problem, and
(ii) management tool is required.
3.Current State of the Forest Knowledge of historical facts of Ghana’s forest: area, composition of forest resources, and population growth showing the trend of forest depletion from the past to present; i.e. from the beginning of the century through independence to the current estimate of closed forest is required.
4. Protective Measures
Forest resources threatened by over-exploitation and measures introduced by the
Forest Services Division to stop over-exploitation and protect the forest resources; including
- Ban on log exports,
- Star rating of species,
- Differential stumpage fees,
- Participatory forestry,
- Yield selection and approval,
- Acquisition of permits and felling rights is required.
Deforestation
(a) Forms and Causes
Understanding of the term deforestation; the indicators or manifestations of deforestation in the environment and the causes of deforestation through human activity; bushfires, farming activities, felling of trees for various purposes, settlement and urbanization, etc. is required.(b) Effects of defore-station The effects of deforestation on
(i) Soil fertility(ii) Animal habitat/population(iii) Economy(iv) Environment
are required.
(c) Control ofDeforestation Control measures such as appropriate farm practices,education, control of indiscriminate tree felling,enforcement of forest laws and regulations,appropriate harvesting and milling equipment;and Intervention programmes such as education,rehabilitation, afforestation and reforestation arerequired.
6. Reforestation,
Afforestation andReafforestion. The meaning of reforestation, afforestation andreafforestation and the differences between themare required.`
Understanding of silvicultural terminologies such
as silvics, silviculture, soil seed bank, shade-demanding plants, light- demanding plants, plant7. Natural Regeneration succession and forest gaps is also required.
(a) Concept of naturalregeneration Understanding of the concept of natural
regeneration, soil seed bank, gaps (natural) isrequired.
(b) Factors Influencinthe choice of natural Factors leading to the choice of natural
regeneration regeneration i.e. topography and slope, type offorest, level and extent of deforestation,occurrence of seed bearing (mother) trees will be assessed.
(c) Succession innatural The stages of Succession (primary, secondary andregeneration climatic climax) and examples of light and shade
tolerant trees are required.
When to use intervention methods (d) Intervention such as line and spot planting to supplement methods during natural regeneration potential of forest is required. natural Advantages of natural regeneration over artificial regeneration regeneration are also required. (e) Other intervention measures The meaning of the term agro-forestry; (i) Agro-forestry Knowledge and skills in carrying out agro-forestry practices such as Agro-silviculture, alley cropping, mulching, pruning etc. are required. Characteristics of plants suitable for agro-forestry; the benefits derived from practising agro-forestry such as providing mulch (green manure), pruning material for fodder, companion food, fire wood from the same piece of land area; and its role in plant nutrient recycling is required. Knowledge of Silvo-pastoral and Agro-silvo- pastoral practices is also required. Understanding of the concept of Taungya, historical background, the factors/conditions that (ii) Taungya influence the choice of taungya in forest estate and Practices the advantages and disadvantages of the practice are required. Understanding of the concept of artificial 8. Artificial Regeneration regeneration (forest plantations) with regard to the use of indigenous species or exotic species in pure or mixed stands; and the advantages and disadvantages of the use of exotic species in plantation development are required. Knowledge of invasive alien plants 9. Invasive Alien species e.g. Aquatic: Eichlornia crassipes (water hyacinth); Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed), Pistia stratoites (water lettuce), Mimosa pigra (large sensitive plant) Terrestrial: Chromolaena odorata (Acheampong weed), Broussonetia papyrifera (Pulp mulberry – York), Leucaena leucocephala
SECTION C
PLANTATION ESTABLISHMENT AND,
FORESTMENSURATION
1. Plantation Development
(a) Factors influencing plantation development (b) Plantation Planning and Design
Nursery Establishment
(a) Cultural Practices (b) Nursery Tools and Equipment (c) Nursery Pests and Diseases
The purpose of plantation establishment and differences between plantation and natural forest is required.
Understanding of factors such as the following that influence plantation development will be assessed:
(i) Deficit of wood for industrial and domestic use.
(ii) Level of environmental degradation.
(iii) Need to improve upon the stocking of existing tree species.
(iv) Need for specific tree type for industrial purposes.
Ability to plan and design a plantation considering its objectives, site selection and preparation, species selection, cost etc. is required.
The functions and importance of a nursery as a supply source of seedlings of high quality is required. Knowledge of types of nurseries (permanent and flying or temporary nurseries) is also required.
Bed preparation and other cultural practices such as pricking out; stumping; stripling; hardening-off; transplanting; seed collection; storage; treatment and sowing; watering; weeding and shading will be assessed.
Knowledge of types of nursery tools and equipment such as pick-axe, shovel, rake, hoe, wheel barrow, cutlass, watering can and their uses will also be assessed.
Knowledge of nursery pests such as slugs/snails and termites; the nature of damage caused by the pests and their control is required.
Knowledge of nursery diseases, such as damping off
and rust, their symptoms and control is also required. Knowledge of various sources of cost in establishing (d) Costing Nursery a nursery grouped into: Establishment (i) Direct costs: raw materials, labour and expenses for tools etc, and (ii) Indirect costs: cost of work-related materials e.g. stationery and other consumables; maintenance costs, rent of nursery plot, will be assessed. Ways of controlling nursery cost and record keeping will also be assessed. 3. Planting and Tending Site clearing and pegging at required spacing is (a) Land Preparation required. Use of appropriate methods of planting seedlings is (b) Seedling Planting required. Tending operations and the importance of each (c) Tending Operations tending operation is required. The operations required include Weeding (complete, spot and line), Beating up, Pruning and Thinning. The effects of improper tending such as poor height and diameter growth, early branching and poor wood quality will also be required. (d) Operational Costs Knowledge of sources of operational costs (direct and indirect costs) and their significance in management is required. Knowledge of kinds of records to be kept on a plantation and the Importance of Record Keeping is also required. 4. Forest Mensuration Understanding of the term forest mensuration and its
(a) Meaning, importance; and the purpose of mensuration in Importance and Forestry including the comparison of current and Purpose future states of the forest, determination of quantity of trees, costing and pricing, management, etc. are required.
(b) Measuring Instruments and Equipment
(c) Enumeration of Growing Stock and Sampling Methods.
(c) Surveys
SECTION D
HARVESTING AND MARKETING OF FOREST RESOURCES
Harvesting of Timber
(a)Factors to con-sider/Pre-harvesting activities.
(b) Procedures to follow
(c) Log Markings
(d) Harvesting,
Knowledge of and skills in the use of tools, instruments and equipment for forest mensuration are required. The tools, instruments and equipment include Haga altimeter, tape, clinometer, compass, measuring chain, ranging poles and arrows.
Knowledge of the paramenters measured and the units of measurement in the metric system is required. Ability to determine height, diameter, girth and volume of trees is also required.
Kinds of enumeration (100%, 5%,2%) of growing stock; sampling and sampling methods
adopted in forest mensuration (selective, systematic and random sampling) is required.
Understanding of survey, kinds of survey (stock survey, strip survey and land survey) and its significance will be assessed. Knowledge of and use of conventional keys/symbols in recording botanical names of trees is required.
Factors to consider before harvesting timber; and the pre-harvesting activities carried out will be assessed. These include stock survey, reconnaissance and field inspections, pre-felling inspection and selection of trees to fell.
The procedures to follow in harvesting timber in natural Forests and Plantations is required. These include permit acquisition, yield approval (for natural forest); felling, extraction and measurement.
Knowledge of how logs are marked and interpretation of log markings; namely, property mark, locality mark, compartment number, stock survey number, tree number, reserve code and log number will be assessed.
Extraction and Transportation Processe
1. Harvesting Equipment and Safety Measures Harvesting of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Uses of Harvested Forest Products Harvesting of Wildlife Harmful Wildlife Harvesting Practices. Marketing of Forest Products
(a) Classification of forest products
The following processes will be assessed: Felling and cross-cutting, Hauling, Marking, Loading and Transportation.
Knowledge of the various equipment for harvesting timber including chain-saw, hand saw, axe and cutlass and their advantages and disadvantages is required. Safety measures taken when harvesting timber such as use of safety gear, directional felling, staff training will also be assessed.
Examples of non-timber forest products including Marantaceae leaves, chewing sticks, plant medicines, canes, rafters, bush meat is required.
Knowledge of methods of harvesting NTFPs. ie. Hunting (bushmeat), Gathering (Leaves, food, snails, medicine, mushroom), Trapping (birds, bushmeat) considering the safety and sustainability of each method is required.
Common uses of forest products e.g. shelter, furniture, household utilities, artefacts, food, and medicine is required.
Knowledge of wildlife harvesting techniques namely; hunting, trapping, baiting and gathering; and the sustainability of the harvesting techniques will be assessed.
Knowledge of endangered, rare and common species and reasons for them being endangered, rare or common will be assessed
Harmful wildlife harvesting practices such as use of chemicals, fire, gin-trap and measures to control them will be assessed.
Measures aimed at reducing wildlife harvesting including training and education, sanctions and confiscation of harmful equipment, close and open hunting seasons, hunting permits and ban on night hunting required.
Classification of forest products into direct and indirect benefits:
(a) Direct benefits: Timber and Non-timber forest products.
(b) Contribution of forest products to national economy.
(c) Demand for forest products.
(i) Factors affecting demand for forest products. (ii) Types of forest products demanded by the local market and foreign market. (iii) Differences demand for products
(iv) Socio-economic benefits and effects of demand for product
Marketing Agencies and their functions
Forest Industries
(a) Timber Industries and Timber Products.
(ii) Indirect benefits: Non-tangible products is required.
Contribution of forest products to income and employment generation will be assessed.
Factors which affect demand for forest products, including
- Demand spectrum of selected forest products - Local and external markets for products - Role of forest-based industries - Current use is required.
Forest products demanded locally including bushmeat, pestles, wrappers,chewing stick, timber, mushroom, medicinal plants etc. and those demanded by foreign market including processed timber, medicinal plants, rattan, live animals, animal trophies etc. will be assessed.
Reasons for differences in demand for products on both local and foreign markets will be assessed. These include
- differences in taste - differences in lifestyle - differences in the level of economics development - quality of produce - availability of produce
Socio-economic benefits and effects
of demand for forest products such as increased revenue, employment opportunities and depletion of resources will also be assessed.
The various agencies involved in the marketing of forest products and their functions is required. The agencies include the following:
Wood products-GEPC, TIDD
Other products like medicinal plants, wood carving, rattan productsetc.- GEPC and other private companies.
Different types of forest industries e.g. sawmills, plywood mills, chipboard mills, their locations and sources of raw materials will be assessed.
(a) Career and Training Opportunities
Establishing enterprises in forestry
SECTION E
FORESTRY SECTOR STRUCTURES
Policy-making, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation.
Training and Research Rights to Forest
The contribution of the forest industries to the economy with emphasis on timber processing, range of products; marketing, employment opportunities, and export earnings will be required.
Processes involved in timber processing and the products obtained namely sawn boards; ( 2 x 4, 2 x 6, 1 x 8, 1 x 12 etc.) veneer and plywood will be required.
Sawmilling equipment used in processing the timber into the products eg. bandmill, slice veneer equipment, rotary veneer equipment will also be assessed.
Forestry training institutions in Ghana and job opportunities in Forestry and forestry-related careers such as carpentry and furniture, wood carving, wood marketing and export, wood
Knowledge of the factors and resources for establishing forest enterproses is required. Factors - e.g. Identification of business opportunities in forestry, identification of a forestry product or service needed.
Resources:- land, capital, materials and structures etc.
Procedures for establishing enterprises in forestry
Functions of the Ministry responsible for forestry (Ministry of Land, Forestry and Mines) and the structures and functions of the Forestry Commission (FC) will be assessed.
Functions of the following implementing agencies will also be assessed:
Forest Services Division (FSD), Wildlife Division (WD) and Timber Industry Development Division (TIDD).
Roles of the following training and research institutions for improving the forest industry will be assessed : FORIG, FRNR, FFRT and WITC.
Resources
(a) Types of Rights
(a) Acquisition of Rights (b)Violation of Rights
Role of Stakeholders
Land Tenure Systems
(a) Types of Land Tenure
(b) Role of Stools, Skins and Central Govern-ment in Land Ownership
(c) Land Registration
(d) Impact of Land Tenure on Land use.
2. Forest Policy and Law
Existing rights governing the use of forest resources in Ghana will be assessed. These include Timber Utilization Contract (TUC), Timber Utilization Permit (TUP) and Salvage Permits for timber resources and Permits for non-timber forest products. Differences between the rights will also be assessed.
Procedure for acquiring TUC, TUP and other permits is required.
Activities that violate rights (illegal activities) such as illegal felling, poaching of wildlife, encroachment (illegal farming, illegal mining) is required.
Stakeholders of forest resources and the roles they play in sustaining the forest is required. Stakeholders include:
(i) Government Sector Institutions - Forestry Commission (WD, FSD, TIDD) (ii) Traditional Authorities and Communities. (iii) Non-Governmental Organisations (iv) Forest-based industries.
Understanding of the terms; and ability to distinguish between alienation rights and also required.
The major land tenure systems in Ghana: Communal, individual, leasehold etc; and the advantages and disadvantages of the systems will be assessed.
Role of stools and skins and central government in land ownership will be assessed.
The importance and the procedure for land registration will be assessed.
Effects of land tenure on land use systems e.g. fragmentation, litigation etc. and ways to improve the land tenure system in Ghana are required.
SECTION F
INCOME GENERATION VENTURES
Cultivation of Mushroom
(a) Importance and Uses of Mushroom
(b) Biology of mushroom
(i) Classification of fungi
(ii) Poisonous and Non-poisonous mushroom/ Commercial and Non-commercial mushroom
(iii) Commonly
cultivated mushroom in West Africa
(iv) Nutrition of mushroom
(v) Life cycle of mushroom
(vi) Methods of mushroom cultivation
Forest and Wildlife policy and
its importance e.g. Management of forest estate, production of forest industries, manpower training and research, stakeholders interest will be assessed.
Forest and Wildlife laws and their importance is required.
Importance of mushroom i.e. economic, nutritional, medicinal and agricultural uses of by-products will be assessed.
Classes of fungi and their characteristics with special emphasis on Basidiomycetes will be assessed.
Features of poisonous and non-poisonous mushrooms; commercial and non-commercial mushroom will be assessed.
Names of; and ability to identify mushrooms that are commonly-cultivated in West Africa are required
How mushroom obtains its nutrients or subsists on substrates/media will be assessed.
The life cycle of mushroom showing the reproduction and production cyclesin mushroom is required.
(vii) Production practices
(viii) Harvesting of mushroom
(ix) Post-harvest handling
Beekeeping
(a) Importance of beekeeping
(b) Apiary establishment
(c) Members of honey bee colony and their roles
(d) Management of an apiary-routine practices and precautions
(e) Maturity of colony, harvesting and processing.
The different methods used for cultivating mushroom indicating in particular the stages/ steps that are followed in each of the following methods:
- local/pit method - high bed method - low bed method - indoor/commercial/plastic bag method will be assessed.
Practices involved in the production of mushroom, especially by the bag method namely;
- composting the substrate - bagging the substrate - sterilizing the bagged compost - inoculation - cropping is required.
Ability to detect signs of maturity, techniques and precautions used when harvesting, frequency of harvest and yield of the different types of mushroom, will be assessed.
Skills in the processing and packaging of mushroom and methods of preservation such as roasting, freezing and canning are required.
Importance of beekeeping will be assessed.
Skills in the establishment of an apiary i.e. siting beehives, baiting and capturing will be assessed.
Characteristics and roles of the members of honey bee colony namely; queens, drones and workers is required
Routine management practices and precautions to avoid harm to farmers will be assessed.
Ability to control pests and diseases of honey bees will also be assessed
(f) Marketing of honey and other products
Inroduction to Wildlife and Plant Identification.Tools, Equipment and Machinery Nursey practices Plantation Establishment: Land preparation Forest Mensuration
Detection signs of maturity, methods of harvesting and processing of honey, wax and other products will be assessed
Strategies for marketing honey and other products is required.
Methods and skills in identification and classification of plants and animals i.e. Wildlife:
Fauna
Using observation skills to recognize wildlife through footprints, tracks, droppings, size, form, external features and prominent organs.
Plants:
Using observation skills to recognize plant parts: stem form, crown shape, size, texture and arrangement of vegetative parts, colour of flower, fruit, etc. Application of conventional keys. Knowledge of habitats of wildlife is required. The anatomy of leaves, stems and roots is also required.
Ability to identify, use and maintain tools, equipment and machinery used in forestry and wildlife management is required.
Advantages and disadvantages of using the tools are required.
Soil treatment methods, seed collection and storage, seed testing and treatment; methods of sowing and planting; and practices such as pricking-out, hardening-off and transplanting; Nursery pests and diseases and their control are required.
Ability to design a calendar for tree nursery development is also required.
Plantation design and planning, surveying and site clearing, pegging, methods of planting and cultural practices such as Thinning, Pruning, Weeding, Beating up and Record Keeping are required.
6. Harvesting of Forest Methods and ability to determine height, diameter, Resources girth and volume of trees and NTFPs, and angles of slopes are required. (1) Methods of Knowledge of units of measurement, and use of Harvesting conventional symbols are also required. Timber Felling operations and safety measures, procedure for (2) Methods of harvesting will be assessed. Harvesting Non-timber Forest Log markings: property mark, locality marks, Products (Plants compartment number, stock survey number, tree and Animals) number, reserve code, log number etc. is required. 7. Processing of Forest Existing harvesting practices; hunting wildlife Resources (bushmeat), collection (snails, mushroom) Gathering (leaves, food, medicine) Trapping (wildlife); and (1) Timber harmful harvesting practices is required. Ability to identify types of processed forest products e.g. samples of veneer, plywood, particle board, artefacts (wood carvings) etc. (2) Non-Timber Forest is required. Products Knowledge and understanding of methods of processing timber into the aforementioned products are also required. Ability to identify products such as rattan, 8. Income Generating bamboo, mushrooms, snails, bushmeat, Ventures medicinal plants etc. and knowledge of their processing and preservation methods and their (1) Mushroom uses will be assessed. Cultivation (2) Beekeeping Ability to identify kinds of mushroom, and knowledge of the uses, methods of cultivation, production, harvesting, processing and preservation practices are required.
Ability to identify various members of bee colony and knowledge of their roles and uses of products are required.
Knowledge and understanding of management, harvesting, processing and marketing activities are also required.